The present invention provides that an electrode surface may be protected from wear, such as erosion and pitting, due to internally generated electrical signals occurring in a saline solution. In particular, a pulsed electrical signal such as generated by the electroporation device described herein, normally causes accelerated erosion and inoperability of the electrodes, and furthermore contaminates the solution and cells with metal ions. The present invention provides electrodes that can be subjected to frequent pulses of electrical charge in a saline solution, as in an electroporation apparatus, and have substantially increased useful terms over conventional electrodes, without contamination of the products of interest.
Previous powdered porous metal nitride coatings, such as titanium nitride (TiN), on electrodes used in gaseous environments have not addressed the unique problems associated with electrodes used to generate electric fields in an aqueous saline solution. In particular, the advantages previously taught for using an electrode having a powdered porous nitride coating are disadvantageous when used in aqueous biological saline environments. The porosity of such prior art electrode coatings does not serve to protect the exposed portions of the electrode surface from surface ion erosion and pitting which are normally accelerated during electric signal emission in an aqueous saline solution.
The use of a metal nitride coating has previously been taught to protect surgical implants or instruments used in a biological system from corrosion and wearing due to externally generated forces, such as salts or friction. However, when using electrodes in an aqueous biological saline environment, internally delivered forces of charged particles (electrons and protons) emanating from the surface of the electrode cause accelerated pitting and erosion of the metal surface of the electrode. Nitriding electrode surfaces has been proposed for improving signal detection in biological systems, such as in pacemaker detection of intracardiac signals, however, not for electric signal generation or stimulation in biological systems, which presents the unique pitting and erosion problems described above. More specifically, the unique demands on a pair of electrodes sending rapid and reversing pulses of high voltage electrical signals in an electroporation chamber, as described herein, pose a problem heretofore unsolved in the art.
In the vascular system of an adult human being, blood has a volume of about 5 to 6 liters. Approximately one half of this volume is occupied by cells, including red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and blood platelets. Red blood cells comprise the majority of the cellular components of blood. Plasma, the liquid portion of blood, is approximately 90 percent water and 10 percent various solutes. These solutes include plasma proteins, organic metabolites and waste products, and inorganic compounds.
The major function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body, and transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for removal. Very little oxygen is transported by the blood plasma because oxygen is only sparingly soluble in aqueous solutions. Most of the oxygen carried by the blood is transported by the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes. Erythrocytes in mammals do not contain nuclei, mitochondria or any other intracellular organelles, and they do not use oxygen in their own metabolism. Red blood cells contain about 35 percent by weight hemoglobin, which is responsible for binding and transporting oxygen.
Hemoglobin is a protein having a molecular weight of approximately 64,500 Daltons. It contains four polypeptide chains and four heme prosthetic groups in which iron atoms are bound in the ferrous state. Normal globin, the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecule, consists of two .alpha. chains and two .beta. chains. Each of the four chains has a characteristic tertiary structure in which the chain is folded. The four polypeptide chains fit together in an approximately tetrahedral arrangement, to constitute the characteristic quaternary structure of hemoglobin. There is one heme group bound to each polypeptide chain which can reversibly bind one molecule of molecular oxygen. When hemoglobin combines with oxygen, oxyhemoglobin is formed. When oxygen is released, the oxyhemoglobin is reduced to deoxyhemoglobin.
Delivery of oxygen to tissues depends upon a number of factors including, but not limited to, the volume of blood flow, the number of red blood cells, the concentration of hemoglobin in the red blood cells, the oxygen affinity of the hemoglobin and, in certain species, on the molar ratio of intraerythrocytic hemoglobins with high and low oxygen affinity. The oxygen affinity of hemoglobin depends on four factors as well, namely: (1) the partial pressure of oxygen; (2) the pH; (3) the concentration of the allosteric effective 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG) in the hemoglobin; and (4) the concentration of carbon dioxide. In the lungs, at an oxygen partial pressure of 100 mm Hg, approximately 98% of circulating hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen. This represents the total oxygen transport capacity of the blood. When fully oxygenated, 100 ml of whole mammalian blood can carry about 21 ml of gaseous oxygen.
The effect of the partial pressure of oxygen and the pH on the ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen is best illustrated by examination of the oxygen saturation curve of hemoglobin. An oxygen saturation curve plots the percentage of total oxygen-binding sites of a hemoglobin molecule that are occupied by oxygen molecules when solutions of the hemoglobin molecule are in equilibrium with different partial pressures of oxygen in the gas phase.
The oxygen saturation curve for hemoglobin is sigmoid. Thus, binding the first molecule of oxygen increases the affinity of the remaining hemoglobin for binding additional oxygen molecules. As the partial pressure of oxygen is increased, a plateau is approached at which each of the hemoglobin molecules is saturated and contains the upper limit of four molecules of oxygen.
The reversible binding of oxygen by hemoglobin is accompanied by the release of protons, according to the equation: ##STR1## Thus, an increase in the pH will pull the equilibrium to the right and cause hemoglobin to bind more oxygen at a given partial pressure. A decrease in the pH will decrease the amount of oxygen bound.
In the lungs, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air spaces is approximately 90 to 100 mm Hg and the pH is also high relative to normal blood pH (up to 7.6). Therefore, hemoglobin will tend to become almost maximally saturated with oxygen in the lungs. At that pressure and pH, hemoglobin is approximately 98 percent saturated with oxygen. On the other hand, in the capillaries in the interior of the peripheral tissues, the partial pressure of oxygen is only about 25 to 40 mm Hg and the pH is also relatively low (about 7.2 to 7.3). Because muscle cells use oxygen at a high rate thereby lowering the local concentration of oxygen, the release of some of the bound oxygen to the tissue is favored. As the blood passes through the capillaries in the muscles, oxygen will be released from the nearly saturated hemoglobin in the red blood cells into the blood plasma and thence into the muscle cells. Hemoglobin will release about a third of its bound oxygen as it passes through the muscle capillaries, so that when it leaves the muscle, it will be only about 64 percent saturated. In general, the hemoglobin in the venous blood leaving the tissue cycles between about 65 and 97 percent saturation with oxygen in its repeated circuits between the lungs and the peripheral tissues. Thus, oxygen partial pressure and pH function together to effect the release of oxygen by hemoglobin.
A third important factor in regulating the degree of oxygenation of hemoglobin is the allosteric effector 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG). DPG is the normal physiological effector of hemoglobin in mammalian erythrocytes. DPG regulates the oxygen-binding affinity of hemoglobin in the red blood cells in relationship to the oxygen partial pressure in the lungs. In general, the higher the concentration of DPG in the cell, the lower the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
When the delivery of oxygen to the tissues is chronically reduced, the concentration of DPG in the erythrocytes is increased in normal individuals. For example, at high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is significantly less. Correspondingly, the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues is less. Within a few hours after a normal human subject moves to a higher altitude, the DPG level in the red blood cells increases, causing more DPG to be bound and the oxygen affinity of the hemoglobin to decrease. Increases in the DPG level of red cells also occur in patients suffering from hypoxia. This adjustment allows the hemoglobin to release its bound oxygen more readily to the tissues to compensate for the decreased oxygenation of hemoglobin in the lungs. The reverse change occurs when people acclimated to high altitudes and descend to lower altitudes.
As normally isolated from blood, hemoglobin contains a considerable amount of DPG. When hemoglobin is "stripped" of its DPG, it shows a much higher affinity for oxygen. When DPG is increased, the oxygen binding affinity of hemoglobin decreases. A physiologic allosteric effector such as DPG is therefore essential for the normal release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the tissues.
While DPG is the normal physiologic effector of hemoglobin in mammalian red blood cells, phosphorylated inositols are found to play a similar role in the erythrocytes of some birds and reptiles. Although IHP is unable to pass through the mammalian erythrocyte membrane, it is capable of combining with hemoglobin of mammalian red blood cells at the binding site of DPG to modify the allosteric conformation of hemoglobin, the effect of which is to reduce the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. For example, DPG can be replaced by inositol hexaphosphate (IHP), which is even more potent than DPG in reducing the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. IHP has a 1000-fold higher affinity to hemoglobin than DPG (R. E. Benesch et al., Biochemistry, Vol. 16, pages 2594-2597 (1977)) and increases the P.sub.50 of hemoglobin up to values of 96.4 mm Hg at pH 7.4 , and 37 degrees C (J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 250, pages 7093-7098 (1975)).
The oxygen release capacity of mammalian red blood cells can be enhanced by introducing certain allosteric effectors of hemoglobin into erythrocytes, thereby decreasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and improving the oxygen economy of the blood. This phenomenon suggests various medical applications for treating individuals who are experiencing lowered oxygenation of their tissues due to the inadequate function of their lungs or circulatory system.
Because of the potential medical benefits to be achieved from the use of these modified erythrocytes, various techniques have been developed in the prior art to enable the encapsulation of allosteric effectors of hemoglobin in erythrocytes. Accordingly, numerous devices have been designed to assist or simplify the encapsulation procedure. The encapsulation methods known in the art include osmotic pulse (swelling) and reconstitution of cells, controlled lysis and resealing, incorporation of liposomes, and electroporation. Current methods of electroporation make the procedure commercially impractical on a scale suitable for commercial use.
The following references describe the incorporation of polyphosphates into red blood cells by the interaction of liposomes loaded with IHP: Gersonde, et al., "Modification of the Oxygen Affinity of Intracellular Haemoglobin by Incorporation of Polyphosphates into Intact Red Blood Cells and Enhanced O2 Release in the Capillary System", Biblthca. Haemat., No. 46, pp. 81-92 (1980); Gersonde, et al., "Enhancement of the O2 Release Capacity and of the Bohr-Effect of Human Red Blood Cells after Incorporation of Inositol Hexaphosphate by Fusion with Effector-Containing Lipid Vesicles", Origins of Cooperative Binding of Hemoglobin, (1982); and Weiner, "Right Shifting of Hb-O.sub.2 Dissociation in Viable Red Cells by Liposomal Technique," Biology of the Cell, Vol. 47, (1983).
Additionally, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,192,869, 4,321,259, and 4,473,563 to Nicolau et al. describe a method whereby fluid-charged lipid vesicles are fused with erythrocyte membranes, depositing their contents into the red blood cells. In this manner, it is possible to transport allosteric effectors such as inositol hexaphosphate into erythrocytes, where, due to its much higher binding constant IHP replaces DPG at its binding site in hemoglobin.
In accordance with the liposome technique, IHP is dissolved in a phosphate buffer until the solution is saturated and a mixture of lipid vesicles is suspended in the solution. The suspension is then subjected to ultrasonic treatment or an injection process, and then centrifuged. The upper suspension contains small lipid vesicles containing IHP, which are then collected. Erythrocytes are added to the collected suspension and incubated, during which time the lipid vesicles containing IHP fuse with the cell membranes of the erythrocytes, thereby depositing their contents into the interior of the erythrocyte. The modified erythrocytes are then washed and added to plasma to complete the product.
The drawbacks associated with the liposomal technique include poor reproducibility of the IHP concentrations incorporated in the red blood cells and significant hemolysis of the red blood cells following treatment. Additionally, commercialization is not practical because the procedure is tedious and complicated.
In an attempt to solve the drawbacks associated with the liposomal technique, a method of lysing and the resealing red blood cells was developed. This method is described in the following publication: Nicolau, et al., "Incorporation of Allosteric Effectors of Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells. Physiologic Effects," Biblthca. Haemat., No. 51, pp. 92-107, (1985). Related U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,752,586 and 4,652,449 to Ropars et al. also describe a procedure of encapsulating substances having biological activity in human or animal erythrocytes by controlled lysis and resealing of the erythrocytes, which avoids the RBC-liposome interactions.
The technique is best characterized as a continuous flow dialysis system which functions in a manner similar to the osmotic pulse technique. Specifically, the primary compartment of at least one dialysis element is continuously supplied with an aqueous suspension of erythrocytes while the secondary compartment of the dialysis element contains an aqueous solution which is hypotonic with respect to the erythrocyte suspension. The hypotonic solution causes the erythrocytes to lyse. The erythrocyte lysate is then contacted with the biologically active substance to be incorporated into the erythrocyte. To reseal the membranes of the erythrocytes, the osmotic and/or oncotic pressure of the erythrocyte lysate is increased and the suspension of resealed erythrocytes is recovered.
In related U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,874,690 and 5,043,261 to Goodrich et al. a related technique involving lyophilization and reconstitution of red blood cells is disclosed. As part of the process of reconstituting the red blood cells, the addition of various polyanions, including inositol hexaphosphate, is described. Treatment of the red blood cells according to the process disclosed results in a cell with unaffected activity. Presumably, the IHP is incorporated into the cell during the reconstitution process, thereby maintaining the activity of the hemoglobin.
In U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,478,824 and 4,931,276 to Franco et al. a second related method and apparatus is described for introducing effective agents, including inositol hexaphosphate, into mammalian red blood cells by effectively lysing and resealing the cells. The procedure is described as the "osmotic pulse technique." In practicing the osmotic pulse technique, a supply of packed red blood cells is suspended and incubated in a solution containing a compound which readily diffuses into and out of the cells, the concentration of the compound being sufficient to cause diffusion thereof into the cells so that the contents of the cells become hypertonic. Next, a trans-membrane ionic gradient is created by diluting the solution containing the hypertonic cells with an essentially isotonic aqueous medium in the presence of at least on desired agent to be introduced, thereby causing diffusion of water into the cells with a consequent swelling and an increases in permeability of the outer membranes of the cells. This "osmotic pulse" causes the diffusion of water into the cells and a resultant swelling of the cells which increase the permeability of the outer cell membrane to the desired agent. The increase in permeability of the membrane is maintained for a period of time sufficient only to permit transport of least one agent into the cells and diffusion of the compound out of the cells.
Polyanions which may be used in practicing the osmotic pulse technique include pyrophosphate, tripolyphosphate, phosphorylated inositols, 2,3-diphosphogly-cerate (DPG), adenosine triphosphate, heparin, and polycarboxylic acids which are water-soluble, and non-disruptive to the lipid outer bilayer membranes of red blood cells.
The osmotic pulse technique has several shortcomings including low yield of encapsulation, incomplete resealing, lose of cell content and a corresponding decrease in the life span of the cells. The technique is tedious, complicated and unsuited to automation. For these reasons, the osmotic pulse technique has had little commercial success.
Another method for encapsulating various biologically-active substances in erythrocytes is electroporation. Electroporation has been used for encapsulation of foreign molecules in different cell types including IHP red blood cells as described in Mouneimne, et al., "Stable rightward shifts of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve induced by encapsulation of inositol hexaphosphate in red blood cells using electroporation," FEBS, Vol. 275, No. 1, 2, pp. 117-120 (1990).
The process of electroporation involves the formation of pores in the cell membranes, or in any vesicles, by the application of electric field pulses across a liquid cell suspension containing the cells or vesicles. During the poration process, cells are suspended in a liquid media and then subjected to an electric field pulse. The medium may be electrolyte, non-electrolyte, or a mixture of electrolytes and non-electrolytes. The strength of the electric field applied to the suspension and the length of the pulse (the time that the electric field is applied to a cell suspension) varies according to the cell type. To create a pore in a cell's outer membrane, the electric field must be applied for such a length of time and at such a voltage as to create a set potential across the cell membrane for a period of time long enough to create a pore.
Four phenomenon appear to play a role in the process of electroporation. The first is the phenomenon of dielectric breakdown. Dielectric breakdown refers to the ability of a high electric field to create a small pore or hole in a cell membrane. Once a pore is created, a cell can be loaded with a biologically-active substances. The second phenomenon is the dielectric bunching effect, which refers to the mutual self attraction produced by the placement of vesicles in a uniform electric field. The third phenomenon is that of vesicle fusion. Vesicle fusion refers to the tendency of membranes of biological vesicles, which have had pores formed by dielectric breakdowns, to couple together at their mutual dielectric breakdown sites when they are in close proximity. The fourth phenomenon is the tendency of cells to line up along one of their axis in the presence of high frequency electric fields. Thus, electroporation relates to the use in vesicle rotational prealignment, vesicle bunching and dielectric constant or vesicles for the purpose of loading and unloading the cell vesicle.
Electroporation has been used effectively to incorporate allosteric effectors of hemoglobin in erythrocytes. In an article by Mouneimne, Y et al., "Stable Rightward Shifts of Oxyhemoglobin Disassociation Constant Induced by Encapsulation of Inositol Hexaphosphate in Red Blood Cells Using Electroporation", FEBS, Vol. 275, No. 1, 2, pages 11-120 (November 1990). Mouneimne and his colleagues reported that right shifts of the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation in treated erythrocytes having incorporated IHP can be achieved. Measurements at 24 and 48 hours after loading with IHP showed a stable P.sub.50 value indicating that resealing of the erythrocytes was permanent. Furthermore, it was shown that red blood cells loaded with inositol hexaphosphate have a normal half life of eleven days. However, the results obtained by Mouneimne and his colleagues indicate that approximately 20% of the retransfused cells were lost within the first 24 hours of transfusion.
The electroporation methods disclosed in the prior art are not suitable for processing large volumes of sample, nor use of a high or repetitive electric charge. Furthermore, the methods are not suitable for use in a continuous or "flow" electroporation chamber. Available electroporation chambers are designed for static use only. Namely, processing of samples by batch. Continuous use of a "static" chamber results in over heating of the chamber and increased cell lysis. Furthermore, the existing technology is unable to incorporate a sufficient quantity of IHP in a sufficient percentage of the cells being processed to dramatically change the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. In addition, the prior art methods require elaborate equipment and are not suited for loading red blood cells of a patient at the point of care. Thus, the procedure is time consuming and not suitable for use on a commercial scale.
What is needed is a simple, efficient and rapid method for encapsulating biologically-active substances in erythrocytes while preserving the integrity and biologic function of the cells. The potential therapeutic applications of biologically altered blood cells suggests the need for simpler, and more effective and complete methods of encapsulation of biologically-active substances, including allosteric effectors of hemoglobin in intact erythrocytes.
There are numerous clinical conditions that would benefit from treatments that would increase tissue delivery of oxygen bound to hemoglobin. For example, the leading cause of death in the United States today is cardiovascular disease. The acute symptoms and pathology of many cardiovascular diseases, including congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, stroke, intermittent claudication, and sickle cell anemia, result from an insufficient supply of oxygen in fluids that bathe the tissues. Likewise, the acute loss of blood following hemorrhage, traumatic injury, or surgery results in decreased oxygen supply to vital organs. Without oxygen, tissues at sites distal to the heart, and even the heart itself, cannot produce enough energy to sustain their normal functions. The result of oxygen deprivation is tissue death and organ failure.
Although the attention of the American public has long been focused on the preventive measures required to alleviate heart disease, such as exercise, appropriate dietary habits, and moderation in alcohol consumption, deaths continue to occur at an alarming rate. Since death results from oxygen deprivation, which in turn results in tissue destruction and/or organ dysfunction. One approach to alleviate the life-threatening consequences of cardiovascular disease is to increase oxygenation of tissues during acute stress. The same approach is also appropriate for persons suffering from blood loss or chronic hypoxic disorders, such as congestive heart failure.
Another condition which could benefit from an increase in the delivery of oxygen to the tissues is anemia. A significant portion of hospital patients experience anemia or a low "crit" caused by an insufficient quantity of red blood cells or hemoglobin in their blood. This leads to inadequate oxygenation of their tissues and subsequent complications. Typically, a physician can temporarily correct this condition by transfusing the patient with units of packed red blood cells.
Enhanced blood oxygenation may also reduce the number of heterologous transfusions and allow use of autologous transfusions in more case. The current method for treatment of anemia or replacement of blood loss is transfusion of whole human blood. It is estimated that three to four million patients receive transfusions in the U.S. each year for surgical or medical needs. In situations where there is more time, it is advantageous to completely avoid the use of donor or heterologous blood and instead use autologous blood.
Often the amount of blood which can be drawn and stored prior to surgery limits the use of autologous blood. Typically, a surgical patient does not have enough time to donate a sufficient quantity of blood prior to surgery. A surgeon would like to have several units of blood available. As each unit requires a period of several weeks between donations and can not be done less than two weeks prior to surgery, it is often impossible to sequester an adequate supply of blood. By processing autologous blood with IHP, less blood is required and it becomes possible to completely avoid the transfusion of heterologous blood.
As IHP-treated red cells transport 2-3 times as much oxygen as untreated red cells, in many cases, a physician will need to transfuse fewer units of IHP-treaded red cells. This exposes the patient to less heterologous blood, decreases the extent of exposure to viral diseases from blood donors and minimizes immune function disturbances secondary to transfusions. The ability to infuse more efficient red blood cells is also advantageous when the patients blood volume is excessive. In other more severe cases, where oxygen transport is failing, the ability to rapidly improve a patient's tissue oxygenation is life saving.
Although it is evident that methods of enhancing oxygen delivery to tissues have potential medical applications, currently there are no methods clinically available for increasing tissue delivery of oxygen bound to hemoglobin. Transient, 6 to 12 hour elevations of oxygen deposition have been described in experimental animals using either DPG or molecules that are precursors of DPG. The natural regulation of DPG synthesis in vivo and its relatively short biological half-life, however, limit the DPG concentration and the duration of increased tissue PO.sub.2, and thus limit its therapeutic usefulness.
What is needed is a simple, efficient and rapid method for encapsulating biologically-active substances, such as IHP, in erythrocytes without damaging the erythrocytes.